Effects on Mother

Söderquist, J., Wijma, B., Thorbert, G., & Wijma, K. (2009). Risk factors in pregnancy for post-traumatic stress and depression after childbirth. BJOG : an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology, 116(5), 672–80. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2008.02083.x
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Söderquist, J., Wijma, K., & Wijma, B. (2004). Traumatic stress in late pregnancy. Journal of anxiety disorders, 18(2), 127–42. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00242-6
traumatic_stress_in_late_pregnancy.pdf
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Hofberg, K., & Ward, M. R. (2003). Fear of pregnancy and childbirth. Postgraduate medical journal, 79(935), 505–10, quiz 508–10.
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Later Effects on Child Exposed to Prenatal Stress

Yehuda, R., Engel, S. M., Brand, S. R., Seckl, J., Marcus, S. M., & Berkowitz, G. S. (2005). Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 90(7), 4115–8. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-0550
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van Dijk, A. E., van Eijsden, M., Stronks, K., Gemke, R. J. B. J., & Vrijkotte, T. G. M. (2010). Cardio-metabolic risk in 5-year-old children prenatally exposed to maternal psychosocial stress: the ABCD study. BMC public health, 10, 251. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-251
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Buss, C., Davis, E. P., Shahbaba, B., Pruessner, J. C., Head, K., & Sandman, C. a. (2012). Maternal cortisol over the course of pregnancy and subsequent child amygdala and hippocampus volumes and affective problems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. doi:10.1073/pnas.1201295109
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Dad's Distress May Make for Troubled Toddler
By Cole Petrochko, Staff Writer, MedPage Today
January 07, 2013
Reviewed by Robert Jasmer, MD; Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and Dorothy Caputo, MA, BSN, RN, Nurse Planner

Researchers found:
  • An expectant father's mental health problems may be linked to his child's behavioral and emotional difficulties early in life.
  • Higher levels of emotional distress in expectant fathers were associated with higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems in children.

A Norwegian cohort found paternal psychological distress was associated with a small but positive risk of a child developing behavioral difficulties (P=0.02), emotional difficulties (P<0.001), and impaired social functioning at age 36 months (P=0.007), according to Anne Lise Kvalevaag, PhD candidate, of Helse Fonna HF in Haugesund, Norway, and colleagues.